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What Term Best Describes The Makeup Of A Biome

Written By Thursday, May 5, 2022 Add Comment Edit

Community of organisms associated with an environment

1 way of mapping terrestrial biomes around the earth

A biome is a distinct biogeographical unit consisting of a biological community that has formed in response to a shared regional climate.[1] [2] Biomes may span more than than one continent. Biome is a broader term than habitat and can comprise a variety of habitats.

While a biome can cover large areas, a microbiome is a mix of organisms that coexist in a defined space on a much smaller scale. For case, the human microbiome is the collection of bacteria, viruses, and other microorganisms that are present on or in a human being body.[3]

A 'biota' is the full collection of organisms of a geographic region or a time period, from local geographic scales and instantaneous temporal scales all the way up to whole-planet and whole-timescale spatiotemporal scales. The biotas of the Earth make up the biosphere.

Etymology [edit]

The term was suggested in 1916 by Clements, originally as a synonym for biotic community of Möbius (1877).[4] Later, it gained its current definition, based on earlier concepts of phytophysiognomy, formation and vegetation (used in opposition to flora), with the inclusion of the animal element and the exclusion of the taxonomic chemical element of species composition.[5] [6] In 1935, Tansley added the climatic and soil aspects to the idea, calling it ecosystem.[7] [8] The International Biological Programme (1964–74) projects popularized the concept of biome.[nine]

Even so, in some contexts, the term biome is used in a unlike manner. In German literature, particularly in the Walter terminology, the term is used similarly as biotope (a concrete geographical unit of measurement), while the biome definition used in this article is used as an international, non-regional, terminology—irrespectively of the continent in which an surface area is present, information technology takes the same biome name—and corresponds to his "zonobiome", "orobiome" and "pedobiome" (biomes determined by climate zone, altitude or soil).[10]

In Brazilian literature, the term "biome" is sometimes used as synonym of "biogeographic province", an surface area based on species composition (the term "floristic province" being used when institute species are considered), or as well as synonym of the "morphoclimatic and phytogeographical domain" of Ab'Sáber, a geographic infinite with subcontinental dimensions, with the predominance of similar geomorphologic and climatic characteristics, and of a certain vegetation form. Both include many biomes in fact.[5] [11] [12]

Classifications [edit]

To separate the globe into a few ecological zones is difficult, notably because of the small-scale variations that exist everywhere on globe and because of the gradual changeover from one biome to the other. Their boundaries must therefore be drawn arbitrarily and their characterization made according to the average weather that predominate in them.[13]

A 1978 study on N American grasslands[fourteen] found a positive logistic correlation betwixt evapotranspiration in mm/twelvemonth and above-basis net main production in chiliad/g2/yr. The general results from the written report were that atmospheric precipitation and water employ led to above-ground primary product, while solar irradiation and temperature atomic number 82 to below-ground primary production (roots), and temperature and water atomic number 82 to cool and warm flavor growth habit.[xv] These findings help explain the categories used in Holdridge's bioclassification scheme (run across beneath), which were then later simplified by Whittaker. The number of nomenclature schemes and the multifariousness of determinants used in those schemes, withal, should be taken as strong indicators that biomes do not fit perfectly into the nomenclature schemes created.

Holdridge (1947, 1964) life zones [edit]

Holdridge life zone classification scheme. Although conceived every bit three-dimensional past its originator, it is usually shown as a 2-dimensional array of hexagons in a triangular frame.

In 1947, the American botanist and climatologist Leslie Holdridge classified climates based on the biological effects of temperature and rainfall on vegetation under the assumption that these two abiotic factors are the largest determinants of the types of vegetation found in a habitat. Holdridge uses the four axes to define 30 so-called "humidity provinces", which are conspicuously visible in his diagram. While this scheme largely ignores soil and sun exposure, Holdridge best-selling that these were important.

Allee (1949) biome-types [edit]

The principal biome-types by Allee (1949):[16]

  • Tundra
  • Taiga
  • Deciduous forest
  • Grasslands
  • Desert
  • High plateaus
  • Tropical woods
  • Pocket-size terrestrial biomes

Kendeigh (1961) biomes [edit]

The master biomes of the world by Kendeigh (1961):[17]

  • Terrestrial
    • Temperate deciduous forest
    • Coniferous forest
    • Woodland
    • Chaparral
    • Tundra
    • Grassland
    • Desert
    • Tropical savanna
    • Tropical wood
  • Marine
    • Oceanic plankton and nekton
    • Balanoid-gastropod-thallophyte
    • Pelecypod-annelid
    • Coral reef

Whittaker (1962, 1970, 1975) biome-types [edit]

The distribution of vegetation types as a office of hateful annual temperature and precipitation.

Whittaker classified biomes using 2 abiotic factors: precipitation and temperature. His scheme tin can be seen as a simplification of Holdridge'due south; more readily attainable, but missing Holdridge's greater specificity.

Whittaker based his approach on theoretical assertions and empirical sampling. He had previously compiled a review of biome classifications.[18]

Key definitions for agreement Whittaker's scheme [edit]

  • Physiognomy: the apparent characteristics, outward features, or appearance of ecological communities or species.
  • Biome: a grouping of terrestrial ecosystems on a given continent that is like in vegetation structure, physiognomy, features of the environment and characteristics of their creature communities.
  • Germination: a major kind of community of plants on a given continent.
  • Biome-type: grouping of convergent biomes or formations of different continents, defined past physiognomy.
  • Germination-type: a grouping of convergent formations.

Whittaker's distinction betwixt biome and formation can be simplified: formation is used when applied to establish communities but, while biome is used when concerned with both plants and animals. Whittaker's convention of biome-blazon or formation-type is a broader method to categorize similar communities.[nineteen]

Whittaker'due south parameters for classifying biome-types [edit]

Whittaker used what he chosen "gradient assay" of ecocline patterns to relate communities to climate on a worldwide scale. Whittaker considered four chief ecoclines in the terrestrial realm.[19]

  1. Intertidal levels: The wetness gradient of areas that are exposed to alternating water and dryness with intensities that vary by location from high to depression tide
  2. Climatic moisture gradient
  3. Temperature gradient by distance
  4. Temperature gradient by latitude

Along these gradients, Whittaker noted several trends that immune him to qualitatively establish biome-types:

  • The slope runs from favorable to the extreme, with corresponding changes in productivity.
  • Changes in physiognomic complexity vary with how favorable of an environment exists (decreasing customs construction and reduction of stratal differentiation as the surround becomes less favorable).
  • Trends in the diversity of construction follow trends in species diversity; alpha and beta species diversities decrease from favorable to extreme environments.
  • Each growth-form (i.eastward. grasses, shrubs, etc.) has its characteristic place of maximum importance along the ecoclines.
  • The same growth forms may be dominant in similar environments in widely dissimilar parts of the world.

Whittaker summed the effects of gradients (3) and (4) to get an overall temperature gradient and combined this with a gradient (2), the wet slope, to express the above conclusions in what is known as the Whittaker classification scheme. The scheme graphs boilerplate annual atmospheric precipitation (x-axis) versus average annual temperature (y-centrality) to classify biome-types.

Biome-types [edit]

  1. Tropical rainforest
  2. Tropical seasonal rainforest
    • deciduous
    • semideciduous
  3. Temperate giant rainforest
  4. Montane rainforest
  5. Temperate deciduous woods
  6. Temperate evergreen forest
    • needleleaf
    • sclerophyll
  7. Subarctic-subalpine needle-leaved forests (taiga)
  8. Elfin woodland
  9. Thorn forests and woodlands
  10. Thorn scrub
  11. Temperate woodland
  12. Temperate shrublands
    • deciduous
    • heath
    • sclerophyll
    • subalpine-needleleaf
    • subalpine-broadleaf
  13. Savanna
  14. Temperate grassland
  15. Alpine grasslands
  16. Tundra
  17. Tropical desert
  18. Warm-temperate desert
  19. Absurd temperate desert scrub
  20. Arctic-alpine desert
  21. Bog
  22. Tropical fresh-h2o swamp forest
  23. Temperate fresh-water swamp woods
  24. Mangrove swamp
  25. Salt marsh
  26. Wetland[20]

Goodall (1974–) ecosystem types [edit]

The multiauthored series Ecosystems of the world, edited past David Westward. Goodall, provides a comprehensive coverage of the major "ecosystem types or biomes" on world:[21]

  1. Terrestrial Ecosystems
    1. Natural Terrestrial Ecosystems
      1. Wet Littoral Ecosystems
      2. Dry Littoral Ecosystems
      3. Polar and Alpine Tundra
      4. Mires: Swamp, Bog, Fen, and Moor
      5. Temperate Deserts and Semi-Deserts
      6. Coniferous Forests
      7. Temperate Deciduous Forests
      8. Natural Grasslands
      9. Heathlands and Related Shrublands
      10. Temperate Broad-Leaved Evergreen Forests
      11. Mediterranean-Type Shrublands
      12. Hot Deserts and Arid Shrublands
      13. Tropical Savannas
      14. Tropical Rain Forest Ecosystems
      15. Wetland Forests
      16. Ecosystems of Disturbed Ground
    2. Managed Terrestrial Ecosystems
      1. Managed Grasslands
      2. Field Crop Ecosystems
      3. Tree Crop Ecosystems
      4. Greenhouse Ecosystems
      5. Bioindustrial Ecosystems
  2. Aquatic Ecosystems
    1. Inland Aquatic Ecosystems
      1. River and Stream Ecosystems
      2. Lakes and Reservoirs
    2. Marine Ecosystems
      1. Intertidal and Littoral Ecosystems
      2. Coral Reefs
      3. Estuaries and Enclosed Seas
      4. Ecosystems of the Continental Shelves
      5. Ecosystems of the Deep Ocean
    3. Managed Aquatic Ecosystems
      1. Managed Aquatic Ecosystems
  3. Underground Ecosystems
    1. Cave Ecosystems

Walter (1976, 2002) zonobiomes [edit]

The eponymously-named Heinrich Walter classification scheme considers the seasonality of temperature and atmospheric precipitation. The system, also assessing atmospheric precipitation and temperature, finds nine major biome types, with the of import climate traits and vegetation types. The boundaries of each biome correlate to the weather condition of wet and common cold stress that are strong determinants of institute course, and therefore the vegetation that defines the region. Farthermost conditions, such equally flooding in a swamp, can create different kinds of communities within the same biome.[x] [22] [23]

Zonobiome Zonal soil type Zonal vegetation type
ZB I. Equatorial, always moist, niggling temperature seasonality Equatorial brownish clays Evergreen tropical rainforest
ZB Ii. Tropical, summer rainy season and cooler "winter" dry season Red clays or red earths Tropical seasonal woods, seasonal dry forest, scrub, or savanna
ZB Three. Subtropical, highly seasonal, barren climate Serosemes, sierozemes Desert vegetation with considerable exposed surface
ZB IV. Mediterranean, winter rainy season and summertime drought Mediterranean brown earths Sclerophyllous (drought-adjusted), frost-sensitive shrublands and woodlands
ZB V. Warm temperate, occasional frost, frequently with summer rainfall maximum Yellow or blood-red forest soils, slightly podsolic soils Temperate evergreen wood, somewhat frost-sensitive
ZB VI. Nemoral, moderate climate with winter freezing Forest brown earths and grey forest soils Frost-resistant, deciduous, temperate forest
ZB VII. Continental, arid, with warm or hot summers and common cold winters Chernozems to serozems Grasslands and temperate deserts
ZB VIII. Boreal, cold temperate with absurd summers and long winters Podsols Evergreen, frost-hardy, needle-leaved forest (taiga)
ZB Ix. Polar, brusk, cool summers and long, cold winters Tundra humus soils with solifluction (permafrost soils) Low, evergreen vegetation, without copse, growing over permanently frozen soils

Schultz (1988) ecozones [edit]

Schultz (1988, 2005) defined ix ecozones (his concept of ecozone is more than similar to the concept of biome than to the concept of ecozone of BBC):[24]

  1. polar/subpolar zone
  2. boreal zone
  3. boiling mid-latitudes
  4. dry mid-latitudes
  5. subtropics with winter rain
  6. subtropics with year-circular rain
  7. dry tropics and subtropics
  8. torrid zone with summer rain
  9. torrid zone with year-round pelting

Bailey (1989) ecoregions [edit]

Robert Grand. Bailey nearly developed a biogeographical classification system of ecoregions for the United States in a map published in 1976. He subsequently expanded the system to include the residuum of North America in 1981, and the world in 1989. The Bailey system, based on climate, is divided into 4 domains (polar, boiling temperate, dry out, and humid tropical), with farther divisions based on other climate characteristics (subarctic, warm temperate, hot temperate, and subtropical; marine and continental; lowland and mountain).[25] [26]

  • 100 Polar Domain
    • 120 Tundra Division (Köppen: Ft)
    • M120 Tundra Segmentation – Mountain Provinces
    • 130 Subarctic Partition (Köppen: E)
    • M130 Subarctic Division – Mountain Provinces
  • 200 Humid Temperate Domain
    • 210 Warm Continental Sectionalization (Köppen: portion of Dcb)
    • M210 Warm Continental Sectionalization – Mount Provinces
    • 220 Hot Continental Division (Köppen: portion of Dca)
    • M220 Hot Continental Sectionalization – Mountain Provinces
    • 230 Subtropical Division (Köppen: portion of Cf)
    • M230 Subtropical Division – Mount Provinces
    • 240 Marine Division (Köppen: Exercise)
    • M240 Marine Division – Mountain Provinces
    • 250 Prairie Division (Köppen: arid portions of Cf, Dca, Dcb)
    • 260 Mediterranean Segmentation (Köppen: Cs)
    • M260 Mediterranean Segmentation – Mountain Provinces
  • 300 Dry Domain
    • 310 Tropical/Subtropical Steppe Division
    • M310 Tropical/Subtropical Steppe Division – Mountain Provinces
    • 320 Tropical/Subtropical Desert Partition
    • 330 Temperate Steppe Division
    • 340 Temperate Desert Division
  • 400 Humid Tropical Domain
    • 410 Savanna Partition
    • 420 Rainforest Segmentation

Olson & Dinerstein (1998) biomes for WWF / Global 200 [edit]

Terrestrial biomes of the globe according to Olson et al. and used by the WWF and Global 200.

A team of biologists convened by the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) developed a scheme that divided the world's land area into biogeographic realms (called "ecozones" in a BBC scheme), and these into ecoregions (Olson & Dinerstein, 1998, etc.). Each ecoregion is characterized past a main biome (also chosen major habitat type).[27] [28]

This classification is used to ascertain the Global 200 list of ecoregions identified by the WWF as priorities for conservation.[27]

For the terrestrial ecoregions, at that place is a specific EcoID, format XXnnNN (XX is the biogeographic realm, nn is the biome number, NN is the private number).

Biogeographic realms (terrestrial and freshwater) [edit]

  • NA: Nearctic
  • PA: Palearctic
  • AT: Afrotropic
  • IM: Indomalaya
  • AA: Australasia
  • NT: Neotropic
  • OC: Oceania
  • AN: Antarctic[28]

The applicability of the realms scheme above - based on Udvardy (1975)—to most freshwater taxa is unresolved.[29]

Biogeographic realms (marine) [edit]

  • Arctic
  • Temperate Northern Atlantic
  • Temperate Northern Pacific
  • Tropical Atlantic
  • Western Indo-Pacific
  • Fundamental Indo-Pacific
  • Eastern Indo-Pacific
  • Tropical Eastern Pacific
  • Temperate Due south America
  • Temperate Southern Africa
  • Temperate Australasia
  • Antarctic ocean[thirty]

Biomes (terrestrial) [edit]

  1. Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests (tropical and subtropical, humid)
  2. Tropical and subtropical dry out broadleaf forests (tropical and subtropical, semihumid)
  3. Tropical and subtropical coniferous forests (tropical and subtropical, semihumid)
  4. Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests (temperate, humid)
  5. Temperate coniferous forests (temperate, humid to semihumid)
  6. Boreal forests/taiga (subarctic, humid)
  7. Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands (tropical and subtropical, semiarid)
  8. Temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands (temperate, semiarid)
  9. Flooded grasslands and savannas (temperate to tropical, fresh or brackish water inundated)
  10. Montane grasslands and shrublands (alpine or montane climate)
  11. Tundra (Arctic)
  12. Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub or sclerophyll forests (temperate warm, semihumid to semiarid with winter rainfall)
  13. Deserts and xeric shrublands (temperate to tropical, arid)
  14. Mangrove (subtropical and tropical, salt water inundated)[28]

Biomes (freshwater) [edit]

According to the WWF, the following are classified as freshwater biomes:[31]

  • Large lakes
  • Large river deltas
  • Polar freshwaters
  • Montane freshwaters
  • Temperate coastal rivers
  • Temperate floodplain rivers and wetlands
  • Temperate upland rivers
  • Tropical and subtropical coastal rivers
  • Tropical and subtropical floodplain rivers and wetlands
  • Tropical and subtropical upland rivers
  • Xeric freshwaters and endorheic basins
  • Oceanic islands

Biomes (marine) [edit]

Biomes of the coastal and continental shelf areas (neritic zone):

  • Polar
  • Temperate shelves and sea
  • Temperate upwelling
  • Tropical upwelling
  • Tropical coral[32]

Summary of the scheme [edit]

  • Biosphere
    • Biogeographic realms (terrestrial) (8)
      • Ecoregions (867), each characterized by a principal biome type (14)
        • Ecosystems (biotopes)
  • Biosphere
    • Biogeographic realms (freshwater) (8)
      • Ecoregions (426), each characterized by a primary biome type (12)
        • Ecosystems (biotopes)
  • Biosphere
    • Biogeographic realms (marine) (12)
      • (Marine provinces) (62)
        • Ecoregions (232), each characterized by a chief biome type (5)
          • Ecosystems (biotopes)

Instance:

  • Biosphere
    • Biogeographic realm: Palearctic
      • Ecoregion: Dinaric Mountains mixed forests (PA0418); biome blazon: temperate broadleaf and mixed forests
        • Ecosystem: Orjen, vegetation belt betwixt 1,100 and ane,450 m, Oromediterranean zone, nemoral zone (temperate zone)
          • Biotope: Oreoherzogio-Abietetum illyricae Fuk. (Constitute list)
            • Plant: Silver fir (Abies alba)

Other biomes [edit]

Marine biomes [edit]

Pruvot (1896) zones or "systems":[33]

  • Littoral zone
  • Pelagic zone
  • Abyssal zone

Longhurst (1998) biomes:[34]

  • Coastal
  • Polar
  • Merchandise wind
  • Westerly

Other marine habitat types (non covered however by the Global 200/WWF scheme):[ citation needed ]

  • Open body of water
  • Deep bounding main
  • Hydrothermal vents
  • Common cold seeps
  • Benthic zone
  • Pelagic zone (trades and westerlies)
  • Abyssal
  • Hadal (body of water trench)
  • Littoral/Intertidal zone
  • Salt marsh
  • Estuaries
  • Coastal lagoons/Atoll lagoons
  • Kelp forest
  • Pack ice

Anthropogenic biomes [edit]

Humans take altered global patterns of biodiversity and ecosystem processes. As a issue, vegetation forms predicted by conventional biome systems tin can no longer be observed across much of Earth'southward country surface as they take been replaced by crop and rangelands or cities. Anthropogenic biomes provide an culling view of the terrestrial biosphere based on global patterns of sustained direct human interaction with ecosystems, including agriculture, human settlements, urbanization, forestry and other uses of land. Anthropogenic biomes offer a manner to recognize the irreversible coupling of human and ecological systems at global scales and manage World's biosphere and anthropogenic biomes.

Major anthropogenic biomes:

  • Dense settlements
  • Croplands
  • Rangelands
  • Forested
  • Indoor[35]

Microbial biomes [edit]

Endolithic biomes [edit]

The endolithic biome, consisting entirely of microscopic life in rock pores and cracks, kilometers below the surface, has only recently been discovered, and does non fit well into most classification schemes.[36]

See as well [edit]

  • Ecotope – Smallest ecologically distinct landscape features in a landscape mapping and classification system
  • Climate classification – Fashion of categorizing the globe'south climates
  • Life zones
  • Natural surround – All living and non-living things occurring naturally, mostly on Earth

References [edit]

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External links [edit]

  • "Biomes". Encyclopedia of Earth.
  • Biomes of the world (Missouri Botanic Garden)
  • Global Currents and Terrestrial Biomes Map
  • WorldBiomes.com is a site covering the 5 main globe biome types: aquatic, desert, woods, grasslands, and tundra.
  • UWSP'southward online textbook The Concrete Surroundings: – Earth Biomes
  • Panda.org's Habitats – describes the 14 major terrestrial habitats, 7 major freshwater habitats, and v major marine habitats.
  • Panda.org's Habitats Simplified – provides simplified explanations for 10 major terrestrial and aquatic habitat types.
  • UCMP Berkeley's The World'south Biomes – provides lists of characteristics for some biomes and measurements of climate statistics.
  • Gale/Cengage has an excellent Biome Overview of terrestrial, aquatic, and man-made biomes with a particular focus on trees native to each, and has detailed descriptions of desert, rain forest, and wetland biomes.
  • Islands Of Wildness, The Natural Lands Of North America by Jim Bones, a video about continental biomes and climatic change.
  • Dreams Of The World, Love Songs For A Troubled Planet by Jim Basic, a poetic video about the North American Biomes and climate modify.
  • NASA'southward Globe Observatory Mission: Biomes gives an exemplar of each biome that is described in detail and provides scientific measurements of the climate statistics that define each biome.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biome

Posted by: jacksonwitimen.blogspot.com

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